Gauguin in Brittany

About the Author

Nina Cronan was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1886. She graduated from Buckingham, Brown & Nichols high school in 2004 and is now enrolled in the Princeton University class of '08. A painter herself, Nina has always been interested in art and art history. She became specifically intrigued by Gauguin's work after seeing his Tahiti exhibition at the Museum of Fine Arts Boston in the spring of '04. Nina also relates to Gauguin on a more personal level, having traveled to a number of exotic locations herself. Nina spent a semester living in Tanzania and has returned there to visit and she has also taken numerous trips to Honduras. These interests combined to inspired Nina to research Gauguin for this project and to expand her knowledge of the painter by studying some of his pre-Tahitian works.

Other Relgious Paintings

"Looking at Gauguin's Christs, they are human, they are of this world." (Emile Bernard qtd in Thomson, 116)

After "Vision After the Sermon" Gauguin continued to paint a number of works with obvious Christian imagery. These works include "Green Christ of the Breton Cavalry" (1889) and "Christ in the Garden of Olives." (1889) Both of these pieces confront the viewer with blatant images of Christ and go even farther to equate these images with Gauguin himself. Although never a Christian, as Denvir calls attention to Gauguin was, "profoundly aware of human suffering and was fascinated by the simple faith of the Bretons." (Denvir, 53) This "fascination" was clearly a powerful force in Gauguin's life, eventually leading him to identify with Christ.

"The Green Christ of the Breton Cavalry," (1889)
This painting was completed at the same time as "Yellow Christ" and is similar to it many ways. (Denvir, 53) Like "Yellow Christ," "The Green Christ" combines intensely religious subject matter with local Breton landscapes painted in vivid, otherworldly colors. This combination gives the painting a powerful sense of evocation, making the stone cavalry appear as lifelike as the Breton woman grieving before it. Gauguin himself points this out, saying, "My aim is to imbue these disconsolate figures with the wildness I see in them, and which is also in me." (Gauguin qtd in Le Pinchon, 120) This quote, however, reveals something more than simply Gauguin's desire to use religion to evoke the "primitive" and symbolic. By saying, "which is also in me," Gauguin identifies himself with these religious images, subtly connecting himself with Christianity and more specifically with Christ. (Le Pinchon, 120)

"Christ in the Garden of Olives," (1889)
In this painting, completed in 1889, Gauguin takes this identification with Christ to another level. As Thomson mentions, in this work the face of Christ is actually, despite the red hair, a self-portrait of Gauguin. (Thomson, 114) This direct association with Christ spreads beyond Gauguin's paintings into his letters and thoughts at the time as he, according to Thomson, "frequently compared his own trials with those of Christ." (Thomson, 114) This comparison was not well received either by the French public or by Gauguin's close friend Vincent Van Gogh. (Le Pinchon, 120) Although eventually toning down his direct association with Christ, Gauguin continued to infuse Christian imagery and meaning into his paintings throughout his life.

Academic Painting in Brittany

Although Gauguin is the most prominent painter to work in Brittany, he is certainly not the only artist who produced work in the area. Contemporary with Gauguin's revolutionary advances in the field of Symbolism, as Boyle-Turner points out, there were a number of painters working in the region who continued to paint in the accepted academic tradition. (Boyle-Turner, 1) One of these painters was Frenchman Pascal Dagnan-Bouveret who traveled first to Brittany in 1885 and remained there to paint naturalistic works that were well received back in France. (Weiseberg, 1) Among his works two in particular stand out: "The Pardon in Brittany" (1886), and "Breton Women at a Pardon" (1887). These two pieces depict local religious customs and are occupied with people in traditional Breton costumes, closely connecting their subject matter with that of Gauguin's Brittany paintings.

We can see this similarity clearly by comparing Dagnan-Bouveret's "The Pardon in Brittany" with Gauguin's "Vision After the Sermon" (1888) and "Breton Women at a Pardon" with "Four Breton Women" (1886). Despite the similar subject matter of the pieces, the appearance of the Gauguin's and Dagnan-Bouveret's paintings differ greatly, leading Gauguin's works to be seen as radical and Dagnan-Bouveret's two paintings to be accepted into Paris Salons of 1887 and 1889 respectively. (Perry, 12) As art historian Gill Perry calls attention to, Dagnan-Bouveret's paintings were characterized by "naturalistic style and anecdotal detail" while Gauguin's painting had a "schematic decorative style" that "generated a good deal of controversy." (Perry, 12, 15) Because of the similar subject matter of the two artists' works it becomes clear that this "controversy" stemmed less from the subjects being portrayed than from the different ways in which Gauguin and Dagnan-Bouveret chose to portray them. While Dagan-Bouveret's paintings maintain the solid figures and somber tones of actuality, Gauguin's subjects are depicted in stylized forms and bold, startling colors. Through these means Gauguin moves his subjects beyond the bounds of the tangible world and into the realm of evocation, suggestion and Symbolism. By comparing Gauguin to Dagnan-Bouveret it becomes increasingly clear that while Gauguin still painted the traditional subject matter of the past, during his time in Brittany he began to see this subject matter with the modern eyes of the future.

Dagnan-Bouveret's "The Pardon in Brittany" (1886) vs Gauguin's "Vision After the Sermon" (1888)

Dagnan-Bouveret's "Breton Women at a Pardon" (1887) vs Gauguin's "Four Breton Women" (1886)

Gauguin's Early Life

Gauguin's interest in the exotic and the "primitive" can be attributed, in large part, to his childhood and to the events that preceded his professional painting career. Gauguin was born in 1848 in France into what Bernard Denvir describes as "a bohemian family," which in turn led to "a correspondingly unconventional childhood." (Denvir, 10) A striking example of this lack of conventionality can be seen in the Gauguin family's move to Lima, Peru in 1849 to escape the political climate in France. (Wildenstein, 563) Although Gauguin's father died on the journey, the family remained in Peru for four years, giving Gauguin an early taste for the exotic. Gauguin's mother, Aline, finally moved her family back to France at the end of 1854 due to the death of her father-in-law as well as the civil war in Peru. (Wildenstein, 566) Upon his return, Gauguin attended a boarding school in Paris and later joined the Merchant Marines and then the French Navy. In 1867, while in the Marines, Gauguin's mother Aline died, leaving him in the guardianship of family friend Gustave Arosa. (Le Pinchon, 21) During these years of service Gauguin was exposed to many exotic, primitive parts of the world, traveling to locations including Rio de Janeiro, Guadalupe and a number of towns along the Chilean coast. (Wildenstein, 558) Despite the constant travel, Gauguin was dissatisfied with the experience and referred to it as "a bitter episode in my life." (Le Pinchon, 21)

In 1871 this "bitter episode" came to an end when Gauguin was discharged and, under the guidance of Arosa, worked as a stockbroker. (Wildenstein, 574) In 1873 Gauguin's life took another turn when he met and shortly after married Danish woman Mette Sophie Gad. (Denvir, 15) Although having, as Denvir mentions, "skeptical" views on the institution of marriage, Gauguin and Gad had five children together between 1873 and 1883. (Denvir, 15) During these years Gauguin continued to work as broker yet became increasingly interested in painting and involved with the Impressionists. In 1883 Gauguin finally gave up business and became a professional painter for both personal and financial reasons. Shortly after, in 1886, he abandoned his family and headed to Brittany, thus beginning his movement toward Symbolism. (Wildenstein, XIII) Although still tied to the traditions of Impressionism at this point, Gauguin's initial travels and unconventional early life clearly foreshadowed his coming search for the "primitive" and Symbolic that led him first to Brittany and later to the South Seas.

Photograph of Paul Gauguin (left), Portrait of Aline Gauguin, "The Artist's Mother," 1890. (right)

Pont-Aven, Brittany

"I love Brittany. I find my own wildness and primitiveness there." (Gauguin qtd in Silverman, 93)

As an artist escaping in search of "primitivism," Gauguin was not the first to find Pont-Aven, Brittany. According to historian Caroline Boyle-Turner, the small French village had been drawing in artists since the early 1860's. (Boyle-Turner, 1) Artists were attracted to the region because of its strong local culture and religious fervor. The village, located on the Aven river, was populated by a group who, as Boyle-Turner puts it, maintained qualities of "a cultural past that was governed less by French culture then by a fascinating amalgam of Celtic, Druidic and medieval Christian folklore." (Boyle-Turner, 1) This blend of ancient elements created an environment where artists believed they could encounter a more "primitive" and "true" people.

Yet, as Gill Perry points out, this "primitivism," while still in existence, had diminished by the 1880's, the peak of Pont-Aven's popularity among artists and the period when Gauguin was working there. Technical advances in farming as well as the continuing increase in revenue from tourism had helped to move Brittany forward into the modern world and away from the timelessness artists had come looking for. (Perry, 10) Thus, Perry asserts that artists working in Brittany were more specifically recreating ideas of the "primitive" they were in search of rather than representing the true Breton culture around them. (Perry, 12)

Despite this conflict, artists continued to flock to the area from around the world. Besides a large number of French painters, including Pascal Dagan-Bouveret, Emile Bernard and Paul Gauguin, a substantial number of artists came from both England and North America, including an early settler, American Robert Wylie. (Boyle-Turner,1) Although most of these artists, with the notable exceptions of Bernard and Gauguin, painted in a more traditional, academic tradition, they all shared similar subject matter, focusing on pastoral, religious and cultural scenes and largely ignoring the industry growing up around them.

"Ragpicker and Pottery Seller," Robert Wylie (c.1875), "Study for Breton Women at a Pardon," Dagnan-Bouveret (1887), "Breton Women at a Pardon," Emile Bernard (1888)

Work Cited

PAINTINGS:

Gauguin:
"Breton Shepherdess," 1886. (Laing Art Gallery, Newcastle Upon Tyne)
"Four Breton Women," 1886. (Neune Pinakothek)
"Breton Shepherd Boy," 1888. (National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo)
"Round Dance of Breton Girls," 1888. (National Gallery of Art, Washington)
"Vision After the Sermon," 1888. (National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh)
"The Green Christ of the Breton Calvary," 1889. (Norton Gallery of Art, West Palm Beach, FL)
"Yellow Chirst," 1889. (Albright Knox Gallery, Buffalo, NY)
"Christ in the Garden of Olives," 1889. (Musees royaux des Beaux-Arts, Brussels)
"The Artist's Mother," 1890. (Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart)
"Self Portrait with Hat," 1893. (Musse d'Orsay, Paris)

Dagnan-Bouveret:
"The Pardon in Brittany," 1886. (Metropolitian Museum of Art, New York)
"Study for Breton Women at a Pardon," 1887 (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA)
"Breton Women at a Pardon," 1887. (Museu Calouste Guilbenkian, Lisben)

Emile Bernard:
"Breton Women at a Pardon," 1888. (Private Collection)

Robert Wylie:
"Ragpicker and Pottery Seller," 1875. (Post Road Gallery, Larchmount, NY)

OTHER WORKS CITED:

Beckett, Sister Wendy. The Story of Painting. London: Dorling Kindersly, 1994.

Boyle-Turner, Caroline. "Pont-Aven." The Grove Dictionary of Art Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Accessed November 10, 2004. http://www.groveart.com.

Denvir, Bernard. Gauguin, Letter from Brittany and the South Seas, The Search for Paradise. New York: Clarkson Potter Publishers, 1992.

Jirat-Wasiutynski, Vojtech. Technique and Meaning in the Paintings of Paul Gauguin. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Kaplan, Julius. "Symbolism." The Grove Dictionary of Art Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Accessed November 28, 2004. http://www.groveart.com.

Kleiner, Fred S. Gardener's Art Through the Ages. Eleventh Edition. Fort Worth et al: Harcourt Brace College Publishers: 2001.

Le Pichon, Yann. Gauguin, Life, Art, Inspiration. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc, Publishers, 1987.

Lovgren, Sven. The Genesis of Modernism: Seraut, Gauguin, van Gogh, and French Symbolism in the 1880's. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1959.

Mathews, Nancy Mowll. Paul Gauguin, An Erotic Life. New Haven, CT & London: Yale University Press, 2001.

Perry, Gill. "Primitiviom and the 'Modern." Primitivism, Cubism, Abstraction, The Early Twentieth Century. New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1993.

Silverman, Debora. Van Gogh and Gauguin, The Search for Sacred Art. 1st Edition. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2000.

Thomson, Belinda. Gauguin. London: Thames and Hudson, 1987.

Weisberg, Gabriel P. "Dagnan-Bouveret." The Grove Dictionary of Art Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Accessed January 5, 2004. http://www.groveart.com.

Wildenstein, Daniel. Gauguin, A Savage in the Making. Catalogue Raisonne of the Paintings (1873-1888). 1st ed. 2 volumes. Milan: Skira Editore; New York: Distributed in North America and Latin America by Rizzoli International Publications through St. Martin's Press, 2002.

Conclusion

With all of this in mind, if we return to Gauguin's "Yellow Christ" it is evident that the inclusion of "Yellow" is more significant than the inclusion of "Christ." This painting does depart from the natural world in its religious subject, but more importantly in the way in which Gauguin portrays this subject, no longer painting with the natural, "true" colors of Impressionism, but with the colors of his mind: surreal yellow and bold crimson. While the image of crucified Christ, Gauguin's religious subject matter, reflects what he saw in the world around him, these colors reflect how he saw that world. Through these harsh, startling tones Gauguin successfully depicts a scene that is both primitive and also out beyond the limits of this world. Gauguin moved into the realm of the modern by depicting the world in this new, modern way â€" no longer dependent on the physical bounds of the natural world, but open to emotions and imagination. This new way of seeing led to a notion of painting that would dominate the century to come; a notion that allowed artists to paint not what was outside of them and their viewers, but instead what was inside of them -- their imaginative ideas and primitive desires.

Vision After the Sermon

"For me in this painting the landscape and the fight exist only in the imagination of the people praying after the sermon, which is why there is a contrast between the people, who are natural, and the struggle going on in a landscape which is non natural and out of proportion." (Gauguin qtd in Silverman, 99-100)

Finally, Gauguin's growth reached a climax in "Vision After the Sermon," (1888) in which he at last found the colors and the "idiom" he had been searching for in Brittany and created a work that, according to Fred Kliener, "decisively rejects Realism and Impressionism" and is considered his first true Symbolist painting. (Kliener, 918) This decisive rejection, like the progression leading up to it, was greatly dependent on Gauguin's development of color, however this dependence is often overlooked because of the obvious Christian imagery in "Vision After the Sermon." As in "Yellow Christ," the Symbolic power of "Vision" has been widely attributed to its religious subject matter alone. For example, art critic Albert Aurier highlighted the significance of religion in the piece, saying that "Vision After the Sermon" marked Gauguin as a Symbolist primarily because of its "visionary subject matter." (Aurier qtd in Jirat-Wasiutynski, 92) Silverman supports this claim by stating that, "With 'Vision After the Sermon,' Gauguin initiated his symbolist project in the hushed solemnity of a religious meditation." (Silverman, 99) For Silverman, by using this "religious meditation" Gauguin is able to make a clear distinction between what is real, the praying people, and what is imagined, the religious vision they see.

Yet, while the Christian subject matter does help move Gauguin into the realm of Symbolism, his changing use of color in "Vision After the Sermon" is more significant in marking the piece as a major artistic turning point. The distinction been observation and vision, and the fusion of the two onto one pictoral plane, is made most powerfully through Gauguin's colors. For example, the women in the foreground of the scene are painted, according to Gauguin, in harshly contrasting "intensely black clothes" and luminous "yellow-white bonnets," (Gauguin qtd in Denvir, 46) connecting them with the factual, concrete earth. In contrast, Gauguin describes the ground on which Jacob and the Angel wrestle, distinctly divided from the women, as being painted in a startling "pure vermillion" and the figures of Jacob and the Angle themselves are painted in "violent ultramarine," "bottle green," "pure chrome-yellow" and "orange." (Gauguin qtd in Denvir, 46) These intense colors give power and radiance to the supernatural world, separating it from the duller, lifeless black-and-white actuality. To this end, Sven Lovgren comments on the symbolic meaning of color in the painting, saying, "By the rhythmical repetition of â€¦the prevailing cold color scale, they [the praying figures] merge into a united visual symbol for the conception of a 'pious group.'" (Lovgren, 101) Thus, for Lovgren, the subject matter itself is not symbolic, but is transformed into a symbol through Gauguin's use of color. Color creates another "visual symbol" in the tree that divides the two realms. The trunk is outlined in dull brown on the left and in brilliant orange on the right, enhancing, as Silverman calls attention to, its symbolic role as a barrier between the unnatural and natural world. (Silverman, 101) As Silverman states, "Gauguin invented a new chromatic key modulated to the contours of inner vision and the wonders of a transcendent totality." (Silverman, 113) By using this new "chromatic key" of an "austere" palette (Gauguin qtd in Denvir, 46) and applying color in large, flat sections, Gauguin intensified his tones, giving them greater purpose and power. With this power, Gauguin moves his colors well beyond those of reality, representing his own movement into the world of imagination, vision and dream -- into the world of Symbolism, a world including, but certainly not indebted to, Christian iconography.

Gauguin's Early 1888 Breton Paintings

Gauguin's continuing movement away from optical, true tones and towards a more Symbolic palette is increasingly evident in the exaggerated colors of his early 1888 Breton works, most notably his painting entitled "Breton Shepherd Boy" (1888). This piece represents an important step in Gauguin's development, revealing both a more individual use of color as well as a more obvious use of Christian imagery. Here, Gauguin presents a shepherd, not longer a shepherdess, and consequently intensifies the connection of his subject matter to the Christian image of Christ as a shepherd. In this piece, however, it is evident that Gauguin's evolved colors play a much more significant role in the growing Symbolism of the painting than does this subtle Christian reference. In terms of this color progression, as Le Pinchon states, the work "bursts with color." (Le Pinchon, 76) Although these bursting, powerful colors still reflect a natural palette, they are greatly exaggerated, marking a more dramatic departure from nature than seen in earlier works. More specifically, the landscape of the painting is composed almost completely of bright greens and bold reds and oranges. This predominant use of complementary colors gives the piece an overall eerie and harsh quality. These jarring colors lend a sense of suggestion and evocation to the painting. The unsettled palette can be seen as reflecting the uncertain expression of the shepherd boy. Similarly, these evocative colors could express the emotion of the woman collecting firewood in the foreground. Le Pinchon, in his analysis of the painting, makes the point that the painting clearly holds symbolic meaning, saying that the woman's position "symbolizes the very wellspring of Gauguin's inspiration: the return to nature." (Le Pinchon, 76) While it is true that elements of the painting do hold symbolic value, Le Pinchon fails to connect this shift towards Symbolism with the "bursting" and exaggerated colors he mentions. This is an important distinction to make because it is through Gauguin's manipulation of color that he begins to interpret the world in a new way, seeing not only what is "real" and tangible, but also what is intangible â€" the subconscious of his subject and of himself.

Gauguin's colors continue to evolve in subsequent 1888 works, specifically "Round Dance of Breton Girls" (1888), maintaining the progress seen in "Breton Shepherd Boy" and moving closer to the Symbolism he was seeking, but, as Silverman calls attention to, still searching for "his own idiom." (Silverman, 97) The bold use of color in "Round Dance" is seen in the white headdresses and red flowers as well as in the in the startling yellow ground. Le Pinchon noted the importance of these colors saying that they "have been orchestrated into a rhythm that is a once hieratic, yet youthful and serene." (Le Pinchon, 80) The "hieratic" elements of the work show the continuing religious progression of Gauguin's paintings that parallels his developing colors. However, Le Pinchon fails to note that it is not the "hieratic" suggestion in the piece but the "rhythm" and power of its colors that add an element of depth to the painting, enhancing the steadily growing power of suggestion in Gauguin's work.

Gauguin's 1886 Breton Works

During his first trip to Brittany in 1886, and the first step of his journey to Symbolism, Gauguin was still producing works that retained an evident Impressionist palette. (Boyle-Turner) For example, "Breton Shepherdess" (1886) shares the true colors of Impressionism, while also revealing the beginnings of Gauguin's introduction of religious subject matter, focusing on a shepherdess and her flock, a clear Christian image. The work is made up of soft, natural greens, yellows, oranges and blues applied in quick brushstrokes and carefully modulated across the canvas. This use of the true tones is closely tied to Gauguin's origins as an Impressionist and the influence Pissaro had on his work. (Wildenstein, 291) As stated by Daniel Wildenstein in his analysis of Gauguin's "Breton Shepherdess," "The atmosphere of this works remains Impressionist." (Wildenstein, 291) Thus, as Wildenstein notes, not only the colors of the piece relied on the past, but also, despite its subtle Christian imagery, the "atmosphere" and essence of the work relied on the fleeting purpose of Impressionist paintings.

In "Four Breton Women" (1886), however, Gauguin begins to transition away from Impressionistic tones seen in "Breton Shepherdess" and towards a more individual use of color that harkens to his later Symbolism. This work, painted in 1886 back in France, but based on a number of sketches done near the end of his first stay in Brittany, is similar to his earlier 1886 works in its general palette and application of color. (Mathews, 75) Gauguin continues to use very naturalistic colors and to divide his tones in an Impressionist manner. In Technique and Meaning in the Paintings of Paul Gauguin, Vojtech Jirat-Wasiutynski states that Gauguin's colors in this painting are, "very close to Pissaro's impressionist palette," (Jirat-Wasiutynski, 76) and therefore are clearly similar to those of earlier 1886 pieces that also reflected Pissaro's influence. This influence, however, is not continuous throughout the painting. In the work, Gauguin begins to incorporate larger fields of flat color, most notable in the vermillion skirt of the woman on the left and the stark white headdresses and collars of all four women. These colors take on a more powerful role than the soft, natural tones of the earlier works, the stark white perhaps suggesting the purity of the women and the red skirt possibility capturing their more primitive, internal emotions. As Yann Le Pinchon points out, this shift in the use of color in "Four Breton Women" shows its clear movement towards Symbolism. (Le Pinchon, 46) Likewise, Jirat-Wasiutynski reinforces the development of the painting, saying, " 'Four Breton Women' has often been signaled out as evidence of a turning point in the artist's work, as he moved away from Impressionism and towards the developments of 1888, variously labeled Cloisonism, Synthetism or Symbolism." (Jirat-Wasiutynski, 68) While these sources clearly highlight a turning point in Gauguin's style, they do not go far enough in emphasizing how pivotal a role his use of color played in this shift. While his use of "unconventional drawing," stressed by art historians such as Matthews, was important is capturing the new message of Gauguin's work (Mathews, 75), his unconventional color took more drastic steps to pull the work away from actuality and towards an inner truth about the power of the primitive, individual mind he was struggling to capture.

Historical Context

To understand Gauguin's eventual move to Symbolism it is important first to examine the earlier development of his artistic career and the forces the drove him to Brittany, and in turn, to Symbolism. Although Gauguin did not take up painting as a profession until 1883, when he was thirty-five years old, he most likely began painting ten years before that point. (Wildenstein, xiii) According to art historian Nancy Matthews, in the early stages of his time as a painter Gauguin worked in the Impressionist style but was not well received and was viewed as being "in the second tier of Impressionists."(Mathews, 40) In part because of this lack of acceptance by the Impressionists, (Mathews, 70) and, more significantly, as Bernard Denvir points out, because Gauguin wanted to find a more "primitive" society, he left France for Pont-Aven, Brittany, in the summer of 1886. (Denvir, 22) In his book Gauguin, Letter from Brittany and the South Seas, The Search for Paradise, Denvir describes Pont-Aven as "a Celtic enclave, superstitiously Catholic and royalist in its attitude" which "breathed the last enchantments of the Middle Ages." (Denvir, 22) The religious piety and Medieval feeling of Brittany Denvir describes gave the Breton people a " 'soul' " or " 'primitive' essence," according to art historian Gill Perry. (Perry, 14)This "essence" drew a number of artists to the area, especially in the summer months, and provided a new subject matter for all these artists, including Gauguin, to explore. (Perry, 10) Yet despite the artist colony in the region, Gauguin still found some of the "primitivism" he was looking for, saying, "I love Brittany. I find my own wildness and primitiveness there." (Gauguin qtd in Silverman, 93) This "wildness and primitiveness" led to substantial developments in Gauguin's style over his numerous trips to Pont-Aven between 1886 and 1888. As Le Pinchon stresses in Gauguin, Life, Art, Inspiration, Pont-Aven, Brittany served as Gauguin's "gateway to Symbolism," giving him an arena in which to transform from a struggling Impressionist to a revolutionary Symbolist. (Le Pinchon, 69)